<h2><b>The Race to Space</b></h2>
<p>Last year, the European Space Agency (ESA) announced plans for building a permanent lunar base—called <a href="http://blogs.esa.int/janwoerner/2016/11/23/moon-village/">Moon Village</a>—which would be a step forward as the International Space Station (ISS) is slated to be <a href="https://futurism.com/nasa-just-released-a-stunning-4k-resolution-tour-of-the-international-space-station/">decommissioned in 2024</a>. The Moon Village is a part of ESA Director General Johann-Dietrich Wörner’s Space 4.0 concept, a new epoch in the space sector where space exploration is no longer exclusive to the public sector but open to private organizations as well.</p>
<p>Wörner says that the pieces of the plan are smoothly falling into place, describing ESA’s <a href="http://www.esa.int/About_Us/Ministerial_Council_2016">Ministerial Council 2016</a> at Lucerne, Switzerland earlier this month as a “<a href="http://blogs.esa.int/janwoerner/2016/12/04/esa-council-at-ministerial-level-2016-success-tinged-with-a-bit-of-disappointment/">success, tinged with a bit of disappointment</a>.”</p>
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<p><a href="http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/DG/LD_114_edit.pdf">Space 4.0 </a>garnered worldwide cooperation, with all 22 ESA member states along with cooperating states outside the EU expressing support. After multiple rounds of lively discussion (as well as exhausting negotiations on funding), his proposal “Space 4.0 for a United Space in Europe” amassed €10.3 billion ($10.77 billion) in pledges.</p>
<p>The “tinge of disappointment” comes from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/Asteroid_Impact_Mission">Asteroid Impact Mission (AIM)</a> failing to get financial support. AIM was supposed to be a defensive “learning exercise” that would use NASA’s Dart impactor spacecraft to deflect asteroids. “It was an example of ESA at its absolute best: daring, innovative and ambitious all at once,” he wrote.</p>
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<figure style="width: 783px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2016/12/ESA-Foster-and-Partners-1200x716.jpg" alt="Artist's concept of a Image: ESA, Foster + Partners" width="783" height="380" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">Artist&#8217;s concept of a Moon settlement. Image: ESA, Foster + Partners</figcaption></figure>
<p>ESA isn’t the only one with eyes set on the Moon. British architecture firm Foster + Partners designed their own version of an inflatable lunar habitat with a catenary dome capable of shielding inhabitants from space radiation and small debris. The <a href="https://futurism.com/videos/check-out-googles-space-documentary-for-xprize/">Google Lunar XPRIZE</a> also challenged a battalion of claimants to aim for the Moon. India, Russia, Japan, and China’s space agencies are also in the race.</p>
<p>As for extraterrestrial settlements, Mars is a competitor for NASA’s attention. But although Elon Musk plans to send humans to Mars soon, building a colony there would probably take longer than building a Moon Village. For one thing, a one-way trip to Mars alone takes three years—preparations not included, which is why the estimated <a href="http://www.humanmars.net/p/mars-colonization-timeline.html">timeframe for a Mars colony</a> is reasonably set between the next 40-100 years. A trip to the Moon, on the other hand, takes only about <a href="http://www.universetoday.com/13562/how-long-does-it-take-to-get-to-the-moon/">three days</a>. And because ESA plans to 3D-print structures out of materials from the Lunar regolith, the cargo necessary for each trip would be substantially lessened.</p>
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<h2><b>A “Backup” for the Species</b></h2>
<p>Some people contend that funds and efforts spent on space exploration are a waste of resources, especially considering the fact that we have people starving and dying here on Earth to whom aid could be redirected. While that&#8217;s true, scientists argue that if we do not build alternative settlements away from Earth, it’s highly probable that the entire species (and the entire planet) would be snuffed out at some point—whether it be due to an outside force such as a comet, or an internal conflict such as warfare. A colony outside the Earth would play an important role in the survival of the human race—a “backup” for the species, if you will.</p>
<p>World renowned theoretical physicist <a href="http://bigthink.com/dangerous-ideas/5-stephen-hawkings-warning-abandon-earth-or-face-extinction">Stephen Hawking tells Big Think</a>: &#8220;It will be difficult enough to avoid disaster on planet Earth in the next hundred years, let alone the next thousand, or million. The human race shouldn&#8217;t have all its eggs in one basket, or on one planet. Let&#8217;s hope we can avoid dropping the basket until we have spread the load.&#8221;</p>
<p>Looking ahead into the long-term future—a hundred, a thousand, a million years forward—is a grueling job that has to be done. Scientists and futurists take it upon themselves to look at the larger picture, beyond religion, politics, and other social issues, to see the human race in the context of a colossal universe in which we are nothing but an infinitesimal speck, struggling to beat the cosmic odds.</p>
<p>So maybe it&#8217;s time to heed their advice.</p>


Off World

Slowly but surely, ESA's plan for an international, collaborative lunar settlement is beginning to take shape.
It's a more realistic goal than plans to colonize Mars, and if successful, the "Moon Village" would act as a kind of "backup" plan for the human species.  

ESA’s Plan for a “Moon Village” is Slowly Starting to Come Together

And it might happen sooner than a Mars colony. 

<h2>What is Machine Learning?</h2>
<p>The interest in artificial intelligence (AI) has evolved lately into something more akin to an obsession. Every day, it seems, we learn of some new development in AI, or its practical application to some other facet of our lives.  The term “artificial intelligence,” <a href="http://www.livescience.com/49007-history-of-artificial-intelligence.html">coined in 1956</a>, started out as mere speculation that human thinking could be organized into a symbolic system that was—or would someday be—technologically reproducible.</p>
<p>But once it gained momentum, it seemed there was no stopping the ascent of AI.</p>
<p>Among the most promising avenues of AI research is <a href="https://futurism.com/images/understanding-machine-learning-infographic/">machine learning</a>, which consists of algorithms that “learn” by finding patterns and generating insights from raw, unassimilated data. Once these heuristic algorithms have assimilated enough data and compiled a sufficient library of rote reactions, they can apply these computations to make decisions and predictions when faced with similar stimuli in the future—consider it an artificial &#8220;instinct&#8221; routine. The programs now have the ability to learn and execute actions without having to be specifically programmed every time, simply by accessing this instinctual programming.</p>
<h2>Machine Learning in Our Daily Lives</h2>
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<p>Over the past years, there have been enormous strides in the machine learning industry, which have resulted in what we have today: highly adaptable programs capable of applying mathematical calculations to big data repeatedly and at significantly faster speeds, <a href="http://www.sas.com/en_ph/insights/analytics/machine-learning.html">according to the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) Institute</a>.</p>
<p>There are <a href="http://www.intechopen.com/books/new-advances-in-machine-learning/types-of-machine-learning-algorithms">many branches</a> under the machine learning subcategory, with &#8220;deep learning&#8221; being one of the main research concentrations. This is hardly surprising, seeing how deep learning is the branch of machine learning that brings AI the closest to its lofty goal of enabling machines to <a href="https://futurism.com/wp-admin/www.mit.edu/~tomeru/papers/machines_that_think.pdf">learn and think like humans</a>.</p>
<p>Now, as the technology swiftly evolves—practically on its own, for by its very nature it obviates or reduces the need for human guidance or intervention—the application of machine learning is fast becoming a ubiquitous part of our daily lives. Among machine learning applications that we interact with on a daily basis, most are probably familiar with those already embedded in smartphone applications, particularly the facial recognition and sorting technology in photos apps.</p>
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<figure style="width: 630px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img class="size-infographicListing" src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2017/01/deep-learning-graphic.jpg" alt="An example of how some advanced machine learning systems are used for facial recognition. Credit: Andrew Ng/Nature" width="630" height="1164" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">An example of how some advanced machine learning systems are used for facial recognition. Credit: Andrew Ng/Nature</figcaption></figure>
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<p>Several shopping websites, together with subscription services such as Netflix, employ machine learning to predict what a customer might like and display suggestions based on these assumptions. <a href="http://www.infoworld.com/article/2907877/machine-learning/how-paypal-reduces-fraud-with-machine-learning.html">Fraud detection</a>, though still imperfect, is also becoming far more capable with help from machine learning algorithms. And as autonomous vehicles gain popularity and legality in different areas of the globe, machine learning will eventually take over the driver&#8217;s seat.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, machine learning can <a href="http://www.dataversity.net/the-next-evolution-of-automation-is-machine-learning/">take automation to a higher level</a>: robotics, for instance, relies heavily on machine learning, and its making important inroads into the <a href="https://futurism.com/enlitic-raises-10-million-to-fund-medical-deep-learning-technology/">medical field</a> to provide improved diagnostics and assimilate patient data to make informed predictions. According to digital publishing group McKinsey &amp; Company, apart from predictable physical work, <a href="http://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/digital-mckinsey/our-insights/where-machines-could-replace-humans-and-where-they-cant-yet">data sciences (collection and processing) are next in line</a> for machine learning automation.</p>
<p>So even if you&#8217;ve never heard of machine learning, it&#8217;s a safe bet it will touch upon your life in some way—no matter how remote. Whether it&#8217;s the changing nature and composition of the workplace and workforce, <a href="https://futurism.com/watch-teslas-autopilot-avoid-a-major-accident-with-just-seconds-to-spare/">the astonishing new advances in driverless tech</a>, or AI&#8217;s infiltration of fraud detection, crime prevention, and medical diagnostics, intelligent algorithms will be influencing our lives whether we like or not.</p>
<p>Watch this video for a demonstration of some machine learning-based technologies being used and developed today:</p>
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Artificial Intelligence

They're coming to get you, Barbara! But they'll make the world a better place…not eat your face.

Machines That Learn Are Invading, and Utterly Transforming, Our Lives

It is fast becoming more and more a part of our daily interactions.

<h2>Which is Which?</h2>
<p>It all started out as science fiction: machines that can talk, machines that can think, machines that can feel. Although that last bit may be impossible without sparking an entire world of debate regarding the existence of consciousness, scientists have certainly been making strides with the first two.</p>
<p>Over the years, we have been hearing a lot about artificial intelligence, machine learning, and deep learning. But how do we differentiate between these three rather abstruse terms, and how are they related to one another?</p>
<p><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/art-inte/">Artificial intelligence</a> (AI) is the general field that covers everything that has anything to do with imbuing machines with “intelligence,” with the goal of emulating a human being&#8217;s unique reasoning faculties. <a href="https://futurism.com/images/understanding-machine-learning-infographic/">Machine learning</a> is a category within the larger field of artificial intelligence that is concerned with conferring upon machines the ability to “learn.”  This is achieved by using algorithms that discover patterns and generate insights from the data they are exposed to, for application to future decision-making and predictions, a process that sidesteps the need to be programmed specifically for every single possible action.</p>
<p>Deep learning, on the other hand, is a subset of machine learning: it&#8217;s the most advanced AI field, one that brings AI the closest to the goal of enabling machines to <a href="www.mit.edu/~tomeru/papers/machines_that_think.pdf">learn and think as much like humans</a> as possible.</p>
<p>In short, deep learning is a subset of machine learning, and machine learning falls within artificial intelligence. The following image perfectly encapsulates the interrelationship of the three.</p>
<figure style="width: 783px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2016/12/Deep_Learning_Icons_R5_PNG.jpg.png" alt="Image: NVIDIA. " width="783" height="380" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">Credit: NVIDIA.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Here&#8217;s a little bit of historical background to better illustrate the differences between the three, and how each discovery and advance has paved the way for the next:</p>
<h2>Artificial Intelligence</h2>
<p>Philosophers attempted to make sense of human thinking in the context of a system, and this idea resulted in the coinage of the term “artificial intelligence” in 1956. And it&#8217;s still believed that philosophy has an important role to play in the advancement of artificial intelligence to this day. Oxford University physicist <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/oct/03/philosophy-artificial-intelligence">David Deutsch wrote in an article</a> how he believes that philosophy still holds the key to achieving <a href="https://intelligence.org/2013/08/11/what-is-agi/">artificial general intelligence (AGI)</a>, the level of machine intelligence comparable to that of the human brain, despite the fact that “no brain on Earth is yet close to knowing what brains do in order to achieve any of that functionality.”</p>
<p>Advancements in AI have given rise to debates specifically about them being a threat to humanity, whether physically or economically (<a href="https://futurism.com/1-the-answer-to-rising-industry-automation-could-be-universal-basic-income/">for which universal basic income is also proposed</a>, and is currently being tested in certain countries).</p>
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<h2>Machine Learning</h2>
<p>Machine learning is just one approach to reifying artificial intelligence, and ultimately eliminates (or greatly reduces) the need to hand-code the software with a list of possibilities, and how the machine intelligence ought to react to each of them. Throughout 1949 until the late 1960s, American electric engineer <a href="http://infolab.stanford.edu/pub/voy/museum/samuel.html">Arthur Samuel</a> worked hard on evolving artificial intelligence from merely recognizing patterns to learning from the experience, making him the pioneer of the field. He used a game of checkers for his research while working with IBM, and this subsequently influenced the programming of early IBM computers.</p>
<p>Current applications are becoming more and more sophisticated, making their way into complex medical applications.</p>
<p>Examples include <a href="https://futurism.com/end-to-illness-machine-learning-is-revolutionizing-how-we-prevent-disease/">analyzing large genome sets</a> in an effort to prevent diseases, <a href="https://futurism.com/machine-uses-algorithm-to-help-doctors-accurately-diagnose-depression/">diagnosing depression</a> based on speech patterns, and <a href="https://futurism.com/study-machine-learning-algorithms-correctly-classify-93-of-suicidal-patients/">identifying people with suicidal tendencies</a>.</p>
<h2>Deep Learning</h2>
<p>As we delve into higher and even more sophisticated levels of machine learning, deep learning comes into play. <a href="https://devblogs.nvidia.com/parallelforall/deep-learning-nutshell-history-training/">Deep learning</a> requires a complex architecture that mimics a human brain’s neural networks in order to make sense of patterns, even with noise, missing details, and other sources of confusion. While the possibilities of deep learning are vast, so are its requirements: you need big data, and tremendous computing power.</p>
<p>It means not having to laboriously program a prospective AI with that elusive quality of &#8220;intelligence&#8221;—however defined. Instead, all the potential for future intelligence and reasoning powers are latent in the program itself, much like an infant&#8217;s inchoate but infinitely flexible mind.</p>
<p>Watch this video for a basic explanation of how it all works:</p>
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A primer on AI: what it is, how it works, and why it's important.

Artificial Intelligence: What It Is and How It Really Works

Which is which, and how are they related?

<h2>Are Your Carbon Copies Out There?</h2>
<p>One very prominent mind twister in both science fiction and real-life science is the concept of parallel universes. This is hardly surprising, since the idea of multiple copies of yourself existing at the same time is both existentially disturbing and thrilling.</p>
<p>The idea of a <a href="http://www.space.com/18811-multiple-universes-5-theories.html">multiverse </a>is not considered a scientific theory but rather, as <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2016/01/22/is-the-multiverse-a-scientific-theory/#7d4f1df714af">Ethan Siegel of Forbes puts it</a>, “a theoretical consequence of the laws of physics as they’re best understood today.” The idea that space-time begins and stretches infinitely implies that existence is mathematically bound to repeat itself at some point—a notion sometimes called the &#8220;quilted multiverse.&#8221;</p>
<p>Or, forgetting the idea of repetitious cosmic clones, there&#8217;s the possibility that multiple big bangs begat multiple space-time bubbles, in a foamy multiversal sea of infinite potentialities. Here&#8217;s how it works:</p>
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<h2>How to Get There?</h2>
<p>But what we want to know is: could you ever get to another space-time?</p>
<p>That depends. The American theoretical physicist and string theorist extraordinaire Brian Greene, of Columbia University, argues that the plausibility of multiversal travel—conceding that parallel universes really do exist—hinges on which multiverse concept you subscribe to. If you are an advocate of a multiple big bang multiverse, then that would mean that leaving our universe to travel to another would be just as impossible as travelling back to the time before the big bang that resulted in our universe even happened.</p>
<p>Now, if you believe a quantum physics-dominated notion of parallel universes, then there’s no need to travel to other universes, because you are already inhabiting multiple alternate universes (though not necessarily all of them). Can&#8217;t decide which dress to wear? No matter—you&#8217;ve worn them both, in two separate parallel universes.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, theoretical physicist Michio Kaku believes that our universe will end up in a “<a href="http://bigthink.com/dr-kakus-universe/the-big-freeze">big freeze</a>,” and that technology can one day allow us to travel between universes.</p>
<p>Neil deGrasse Tyson, on the other hand, says that if you come from <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DZzG9b50oYs">a universe with higher dimensions</a>, then it could be as easy to move between dimensions as stepping from one room to another. And in <a href="http://www.nuclecu.unam.mx/~alberto/physics/string.html">string theory</a>—one of the leading contenders in bridging the seemingly insuperable gulf sundering quantum mechanics and general relativity—the assumption is that we actually have far more dimensions in this universe than we previously thought and that we just fail to detect them because they are actually very small, curled up in the infinitely minute, trans-subatomic realms beyond the reach of our instruments.</p>
<p>But how can we prove (or disprove) any of these arguments without gaining first-hand experience of it? Much as many aspects of our universe still remain elusive to us, it&#8217;s currently impossible to acquire any proof to confirm which of these hypotheses is right. But while we don&#8217;t have the means to <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/can-physicists-ever-prove-multiverse-real-180958813/">definitively prove whether alternate universes do exist</a>, and whether we could traverse borders to move from one to another, it’s highly unlikely that a topic as stimulating as this will disappear anytime soon, either in science fiction or in real-life science.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, physicists are at it. Watch this brief video of physicists going head to head with each other on string theory, Math, and potentially embarrassing alien encounters.</p>
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Sci-Fi Visions

Will you ever be able to meet your twin self in another universe?

Physicists Weigh In: Could We Ever Travel to a Parallel Universe?

Intellectual face-off: which side are you on?

<h2>Molecular LEGOs</h2>
<p>While you aren&#8217;t likely to find a diamond that contains only 10 atoms and weighs less than a billionth of a billionth of a carat on any engagement rings, these extremely small diamonds known as <a href="https://www6.slac.stanford.edu/files/diamondoid_discoveries_factsheet_4_2014.pdf" target="_blank">diamondoids</a> are very useful in laboratories. They consist of interlocking cages of carbon and hydrogen, like LEGO building blocks taken to the molecular level, and because they are so small, they can do things regular diamonds can&#8217;t.</p>
<p>Back in 2002, scientists achieved a breakthrough in diamondoid research when they found a way to isolate and purify larger diamondoids, giving them access to a wider variety of shapes and sizes. They&#8217;ve since used these 99-percent-pure diamondoids to improve electron microscope images, coat computer chips, and now, create ultra-thin electrical wires.</p>
<p>Scientists from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank">Stanford University</a> and the Department of Energy&#8217;s <a href="https://www6.slac.stanford.edu/" target="_blank">SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC)</a> have paired diamondoids with sulfur and copper atoms to create electrical wires that are only three atoms wide, the thinnest in history. The results have been <a href="http://nature.com/articles/doi:10.1038/nmat4823" target="_blank">published in <em>Nature Materials</em></a>.</p>
<p>This is the first demonstration of a nanowire with a solid crystalline core with good electronic properties, co-author <a href="https://m.phys.org/news/2016-12-world-smallest-diamonds-wires-atoms.html" target="_blank">Nicholas Melosh told Phys.org</a>. The best part is that the process they developed is very easy and fast. &#8220;The process is a simple, one-pot synthesis. You dump the ingredients together and you can get results in half an hour,&#8221; says study lead author Hao Yan. &#8220;It&#8217;s almost as if the diamondoids know where they want to go.&#8221;</p>
<figure style="width: 640px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2016/12/586128b15ab66.gif" alt="Image: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory" width="640" height="380" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">An animation of diamondoids self-assembling with sulfur and copper atoms (yellow and brown spheres). Image: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory</figcaption></figure>
<h2>New Materials on the Horizon</h2>
<p>According to <a href="https://www6.slac.stanford.edu/news/2016-12-26-researchers-use-worlds-smallest-diamonds-make-wires-three-atoms-wide.aspx" target="_blank">the study&#8217;s press release</a>, this ability to shape and control materials accurately down to the atomic level could be useful in a variety of ways. The tiny electrical wires could be integrated into electricity-generating fabrics, optoelectronic devices, and even <a href="https://futurism.com/researchers-transmit-super-current-a-record-distance/">superconducting materials</a> that would be able to conduct electricity without any loss.</p>
<p>Materials on the small scale can retain extraordinary properties that are lost when they are composed in bulk. The researchers believe taking advantage of these properties using their assembly technique could lead to entirely new types of materials for entirely new uses.</p>
<p>&#8220;This method gives us a versatile toolkit where we can tinker with a number of ingredients and experimental conditions to create new materials with finely tuned electronic properties and interesting physics,&#8221; said Melosh.</p>
<figure style="width: 783px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2016/12/60-researchersu.jpg" alt="Fuzzy white clusters of nanowires on a lab bench, with a penny for scale. Assembled with the help of diamondoids, the microscopic nanowires can be seen with the naked eye because the strong mutual attraction between their diamondoid shells makes them clump together, in this case by the millions. At top right, an image made with a scanning electron microscope shows nanowire clusters magnified 10,000 times. Credit: SEM image by Hao Yan/SIMES; photo by SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory" width="783" height="380" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">The nanowires created with diamondoids, sulfur, and copper atoms, as compared to a penny. Credit: SEM image by Hao Yan/SIMES; photo by SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory</figcaption></figure>


Hard Science

Researchers have paired extremely small diamonds known as diamondoids with sulfur and copper atoms to create electrical wires only three atoms wide, the thinnest size possible.
These tiny electrical wires could be integrated into electricity-generating fabrics, optoelectronic devices, and even superconducting materials.

Physicists Create Thin Diamond Wires That Could Make Future Tech Tiny

At only three atoms wide, these wires couldn't possibly be any thinner.

<h2><b></b>Looking Down From Space</h2>
<p>Back in 2006, <a href="https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/project/calipso/calipso_table">NASA launched</a> the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) to study the role of clouds and atmospheric aerosols in regulating the planet’s climate, weather, and overall air quality. One of <a href="https://www-calipso.larc.nasa.gov/about/payload.php#CALIOP">the instruments</a> on board, the <a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2004ESASP.561..941W">CALIOP</a> (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization), is an autonomous light detection and ranging (lidar) instrument designed to measure phytoplankton in polar regions.</p>
<p>Previous satellites monitored phytoplankton based on sunlight reflected from the ocean surface out into space—which posed a problem when observing ocean surfaces close to the poles due to limited sunlight and persistent clouds. The CALIOP, on the other hand, bypassed these hurdles since it uses lasers to take measurements.</p>
<p>Thanks to the satellite, NASA found that the small changes in polar food webs influence the &#8220;boom-and-bust cycles,&#8221; or peak and decline, of phytoplankton over time. <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/space-laser-reveals-boom-and-bust-cycle-of-polar-ocean-plants">According to NASA</a>, &#8220;these findings will supply important data for ecosystem management, commercial fisheries and our understanding of the interactions between Earth’s climate and key ocean ecosystems.&#8221;</p>
<p>“It’s really important for us to understand what controls these boom-and-bust cycles, and how they might change in the future so we can better evaluate the implications on all other parts of the food web,” said Michael Behrenfeld, a marine plankton expert at Oregon State University in Corvallis.</p>
<h2>Why Study Phytoplankton?</h2>
<p>Despite their microscopic size, plankton play a huge role in the ecosystem. According to the <a href="http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/plankton/intro/why.html">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA)</a>:</p>
<blockquote><p>Photosynthesis by the phytoplankton accounts for up to half of global primary production. They also provide the primary food source for the zooplankton, and together form the base of the oceanic food chain. Larger and larger zooplankton, fish, and mammals depend on these plankton for their survival. Tying it all together, the bacterioplankton play an important role in the recycling and remineralization of materials and energy within the food chain.</p></blockquote>
<figure style="width: 754px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2016/12/Assorted-phytoplankton-under-the-microscope-Gordon-Taylor-NOAA.jpg" alt="falehglasjghesh" width="754" height="380" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">Different plankton under a microscope. Image: Gordon Taylor, NOAA.</figcaption></figure>
<p>While plankton&#8217;s role in the food chain is common knowledge, these microscopic organisms have more to do with the ecosystem beyond being a source of food. Studies outline their effect on <a href="https://futurism.com/worlds-tech-elite-form-1-billion-clean-energy-fund-to-fight-climate-change/">climate change</a>—which perfectly aligns with the <a href="https://www-calipso.larc.nasa.gov/">CALIPSO’s main directive</a>. They influence Earth&#8217;s carbon cycle by absorbing carbon dioxide through photosynthesis.</p>
<p>Further, the study also revealed that a constant push and pull between predator and prey is to blame for the change in Arctic plankton stocks over the last 10 years. In the Southern Ocean around Antarctica, though, changes in the ice cover were more important to phytoplankton population changes.</p>
<p>“The take home message is that if we want to understand the biological food web and production of the polar systems as a whole, we have to focus both on changes in ice cover and changes in the ecosystems that regulate this delicate balance between predators and prey,” said Behrenfeld.</p>


Earth & Energy

One of the tools aboard NASA's CALIPSO satellite is the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization, an autonomous light detection and ranging (lidar) instrument designed to measure plankton in polar regions.
Despite their microscopic size, plankton play a huge role in the ecosystem – they can even tell us about climate change. 

NASA’s Enormous Space-Based Laser Probes Earth’s Oceans

Plankton are so much more than just a source of food. 

<h2>From Science Fiction to Reality</h2>
<p>Until 1992, our notion of star-orbiting planets beyond Earth&#8217;s solar system only existed in science fiction. That&#8217;s when astronomers <a href="http://www.solstation.com/planets/super-earths.htm">Alex Wolszczan and Dale Frail</a> announced the first discovery of such celestial bodies. Since then, we have found and confirmed a total of 3,431 of these exoplanets, and the Kepler mission alone is awaiting <a href="http://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/docs/counts_detail.html">confirmation for 2,416 more</a>. That&#8217;s a lot of planets in just a little over two decades.</p>
<p>Two of these exoplanets found orbiting a star named PSR B1257+12 had a mass greater than Earth&#8217;s but less than that of Neptune. Those were categorized as “<a href="http://www.livescience.com/33493-super-earth-definition.html">super-Earths</a>.” Since then, we&#8217;ve found a variety of <a href="https://futurism.com/a-quick-rundown-the-five-closest-exoplanets-that-could-potentially-support-life/" target="_blank">other super-Earths</a>. <a href="https://futurism.com/kepler-k2%E2%80%B2-finds-first-exoplanet-super-earth/" target="_blank">HIP 116454b</a> orbits its star in less than 10 days, but a year on <a href="https://futurism.com/first-analysis-super-earths-atmosphere-reveals-scorching-wasteland/" target="_blank">55 Cancri e</a> is even shorter: only 18 hours long. That latter super-Earth doesn&#8217;t even have water vapor in its atmosphere, while another, <a href="https://futurism.com/scientists-discover-super-earth-with-plasma-water-2/" target="_blank">Gliese 1214 b</a>, has water plasma on its surface.</p>
<figure style="width: 783px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2016/12/NASA.jpg" alt="Image: NASA." width="783" height="380" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">Image: NASA.</figcaption></figure>
<h2>A More Sophisticated League of Interstellar Eyes</h2>
<p>As bigger, better telescopes and observatories are constructed, we obtain exponentially more detailed views that give us solid ground for analysis of the objects surrounding us in the universe. Throughout 2016, some remarkable developments have taken place, but expectations are high that we&#8217;ll find more of these super-Earths in 2017 thanks to the launch of the following telescopes and observatories — maybe we&#8217;ll even find some boasting conditions ripe for life.</p>
<p><b>Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS)</b></p>
<p>NASA will be launching <a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/new-telescopes-will-search-signs-life-distant-planets">TESS </a>in 2017.  Within its two-year mission, they plan to use the satellite to observe at least 200,000 stars and expect to discover thousands more exoplanets.</p>
<p><b>MeerKAT and SKA</b></p>
<p>The 64-dish MeerKAT Radio Telescope in South Africa is so powerful that in a test run using only 16 of its 64 dishes, it was able to <a href="https://futurism.com/new-telescope-reveals-1300-galaxies-where-astronomers-thought-only-70-existed/">detect 1,300 galaxies where only 70 were previously known to exist</a>. All 64 of those dishes are expected to be in place by the start of 2017, so we can expect big discoveries from this telescope. As if MeerKAT isn&#8217;t impressive enough, it&#8217;s actually just a small part of an even bigger project, the Square Kilometer Array (SKA).</p>
<p><b>FAST</b></p>
<p>The 500-meter (547-yard) wide Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST), nicknamed Tianyan (Eye of Heaven), holds the world record not only in size but in sensitivity: it’s about twice as sensitive and between five and 10 times as fast in surveying as the previous record holder. This device <a href="https://futurism.com/the-quest-for-life-beyond-earth-the-worlds-largest-radio-telescope-just-went-online/">went live in September</a> this year, so it&#8217;ll likely contribute to many discoveries in 2017.</p>
<p><b>James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)</b></p>
<p>Just in case the potential for super-Earth discoveries in 2017 isn&#8217;t enough, NASA’s Hubble replacement, the <a href="http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/">James Webb Space Telescope</a>, will join the hunt for exoplanets orbiting nearby stars in 2018. This telescope took 20 years and $8.8 billion to build, and it was designed with a view <a href="https://futurism.com/nasas-wfirst-telescope-will-investigate-universes-secrets/" target="_blank">100 times the size of Hubble&#8217;s</a>. Supposedly, it is so powerful that it can <a href="https://futurism.com/videos/nasas-james-webb-telescope-could-detect-a-bumblebee-on-the-moon/">detect a bumblebee on the Moon</a>, so hopes are high it&#8217;ll be able to find more super-Earths.</p>
<figure style="width: 720px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2016/12/mirror44_med.jpg" alt="The James Webb Space Telescope. Image: NASA." width="720" height="380" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">The James Webb Space Telescope. Image: NASA.</figcaption></figure>


Since 1992, astronomers have found and confirmed a total of 3,431 exoplanets, star-orbiting planets beyond Earth's solar system.
With several high-tech telescopes and observatories on the way in the next year, we have a better-than-ever chance of finding exoplanets with the potential to host extraterrestrial life.

2017 Will Bring Us More Earth-Like Alien Worlds Than We Ever Dreamed

It’s going to be a busy and exciting year for astronomy.

<h2>Disruption and Displacement</h2>
<p>While technological advancements in <a href="https://futurism.com/?s=artificial+intelligence" target="_blank">artificial intelligence (AI)</a> and <a href="https://futurism.com/?s=robotics" target="_blank">robotics</a> will clearly make a lot of processes easier and more cost-effective, the impending repercussions need to be addressed before the inevitable happens. As automation begins to take over several jobs, the world is turning to <a href="https://futurism.com/?s=universal+basic+income" target="_blank">universal basic income (UBI)</a> as a possible solution to the anticipated unemployment it will create, which is estimated to be in the millions by the end of the decade.</p>
<p>One proponent of such a system is Andy Stern, author of the book &#8220;<a href="https://www.amazon.com/Raising-Floor-Universal-Economy-American/dp/1610396251" target="_blank">Raising the Floor: How a Universal Basic Income Can Renew Our Economy and Rebuild the American Dream</a>.&#8221; Stern spent 38 years of his life working for the <a href="http://www.seiu.org/about">Service Employees International Union (SEIU)</a>, a labor union that aims to improve the lives of workers and their families. He resigned after serving as its international president for 14 years.</p>
<p>In an <a href="http://www.vox.com/conversations/2016/10/17/13245808/andy-stern-work-universal-basic-income-technology-artificial-intelligence-unions" target="_blank">interview with <em>Vox</em></a>, Stern talks about how he believes that the <a href="http://america.day-dreamer.de/dream.htm">American dream</a> is sure to die unless we become proactive about finding a way to keep it alive. “I think that if people don&#8217;t intervene right now, it will [die]. Fifty percent of Americans say they don’t believe in the American dream, and they’re justified in believing that,” he says. “People with college degrees are not making anywhere near the kind of progress that their parents made, and that’s not their fault,” he added.</p>
<p>In the interview, Stern tells <em>Vox</em> that he thinks &#8220;a tsunami of change&#8221; is on the way in the U.S. economy, and he proposes instilling a UBI system to cope with that change. “I believe a UBI is a way to ease the transition, and it&#8217;s also a way to provide a floor for people — not necessarily a substitute for work, but a supplement to work that allows them to have a sense of economic security, have consumer buying power,&#8221; he asserts. &#8220;We want to allow people to be entrepreneurs, to take risks and raise kids and do other things without turning the world into the Hunger Games.&#8221;</p>
<figure style="width: 783px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img style="width: 100%" src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2016/11/lead_960-1.jpg" alt="A pro-UBI poster in a square in Geneva, Switzerland. Denis Balibouse / Reuters." width="783" height="380" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">A pro-UBI poster in a square in Geneva, Switzerland. Denis Balibouse / Reuters.</figcaption></figure>
<h2>UBI Trials</h2>
<p>Unsurprisingly, not everyone thinks a UBI is a good plan. In an article <a href="http://www.nationalreview.com/article/436621/universal-basic-income-ubi-terrible-idea">published in <em>the National Review</em></a>, <a href="http://www.manhattan-institute.org/" target="_blank">Manhattan Institute</a> senior fellow Owen Cass counter-argued a $13,000 annual UBI proposal, saying it’s not enough for a person to live on and ultimately a terrible idea.</p>
<p>But Stern and others argue that a UBI is not meant to burden the state to give people an extravagant lifestyle — just enough money to ease the financial insecurity brought upon by automation and technology. Some, like London&#8217;s Adam Smith Institute fellow <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2016/06/04/of-course-we-can-afford-a-universal-basic-income-do-we-want-one-though/#41e1f0cfe00a">Tim Worstall</a>, believe a UBI system would be “actually cheaper than the current system” of social security, food stamps, and welfare.</p>
<p>Several countries have announced plans to conduct test runs for UBI systems, including <a href="http://bigthink.com/ideafeed/what-happens-when-everyone-is-given-basic-income" target="_blank">the Netherlands</a>, <a href="https://futurism.com/finland-explores-offering-a-universal-basic-income-to-its-citizens/" target="_blank">Finland</a>, <a href="https://futurism.com/is-universal-basic-income-a-viable-solution-another-country-is-giving-it-a-shot/">Canada</a>, and <a href="https://futurism.com/a-new-basic-income-project-is-set-to-launch-in-january/">Uganda</a>, so hard data on the practicality and pros and cons of such systems should be coming soon. With an estimated <a href="https://futurism.com/images/universal-basic-income-answer-automation/" target="_blank">57 percent of the world&#8217;s jobs</a> at risk of being replaced by automated systems, that insight can&#8217;t come soon enough.</p>


Future Society

With automation poised to take over an estimated 57 percent of jobs, many are turning to universal basic income (UBI) as a possible solution to widespread unemployment.
UBI systems are already being tested in countries such as Canada, Finland, and the Netherlands, so hard data on the practicality of such systems should be forthcoming.

Is a Universal Basic Income the Answer to Automation-Caused Unemployment?

Is a universal basic income the answer to automation?

<h2>The Original VR</h2>
<p>Currently, the desire for <a href="https://futurism.com/?s=virtual+reality" target="_blank">virtual reality (VR)</a> is at an all-time high, driving <a href="https://futurism.com/top-vr-developers-unite-to-form-the-global-virtual-reality-association/">the industry</a> to innovate at a very fast pace. In addition to straightforward VR technology, we&#8217;re also seeing progress in <a href="https://futurism.com/?s=augmented+reality" target="_blank">augmented reality (AR)</a> and <a href="https://newsroom.intel.com/chip-shots/intel-ceo-introduces-vision-for-merged-reality-at-2016-intel-developer-forum/">merged reality (MR)</a>, an emerging hybrid where you can interact with digital objects using the physical objects around you, allowing you to hit a virtual ball with a real-life baseball bat, for example.</p>
<figure style="width: 243px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img src="https://wp-assets.futurism.com/2016/12/hgclip14c.jpg" alt="Hugo Gernsback, September 9, 1963. Life Magazine. " width="243" height="288" /><figcaption class="wp-caption-text">Hugo Gernsback, September 9, 1963. Life Magazine.</figcaption></figure>
<p>But when did we first start designing wearable screens that would transport us to another world? American author and inventor <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hugo-Gernsback">Hugo Gernsback</a> is said to have created the first entertainment eyewear device — the closest predecessor to current VR goggles.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.nndb.com/people/381/000045246/">Gernsback </a>is the same guy who created the brilliantly imaginative fiction magazine “<a href="http://amazingstoriesmag.com/">Amazing Stories</a>” in 1926, which later on was adapted into a TV series by Steven Spielberg. He is also responsible for coining the term “<a href="http://www.luxembourg.public.lu/en/le-grand-duche-se-presente/luxembourgeois-celebres_PHASE-II/scientifiques/hugo-gernsback/index.html">science fiction</a>,” which he originally referred to as “scientifiction.” Because of this, the World Science Fiction Society&#8217;s annual award ceremony is referred to as the <a href="http://www.thehugoawards.org/" target="_blank">the Hugo Awards</a>.</p>
<p>In 1936, Gernsback invented his television eyeglasses or “teleyeglasses,” a pocket-sized, battery-operated portable TV with a separate screen for each eye, much like today&#8217;s 3D VR glasses. The device provided an experience <em>Life Magazine</em> described as “neo-Martian.” At only about 140 grams (a little less than a third of a pound), the glasses came with small cathode-ray tubes inside of them, a pair of antennae protruding from their top (like those found on old TVs), and a promise from Gernsback that they posed no risk of electrocution…anymore.</p>
<h2>Decades of Innovation</h2>
<p>Of course, Gernsback&#8217;s invention isn&#8217;t exactly comparable to modern VR goggles — essentially, it was just a wearable mini TV — but for something conceived in the 1930s, it is pretty impressive. However, today&#8217;s VR/AR tech is much more impressive, and it seems like every day something new is happening to make it even more so.</p>
<p>In late 2016, the <a href="http://www.vive.com/us/" target="_blank">HTV Vive</a> <a href="https://futurism.com/get-ready-htc-vive-is-making-virtual-reality-wireless/" target="_blank">went wireless</a>, untethering VR fans from their systems with one-and-a-half hours of battery life, and <a href="https://www.oculus.com/" target="_blank">Oculus</a> is currently working on <a href="http://uploadvr.com/hands-santa-cruz-inside-out/" target="_blank">a prototype of a VR headset</a> that wouldn&#8217;t need to be connected to a console at all. Several companies are looking into ways to <a href="https://futurism.com/?s=haptic" target="_blank">incorporate haptic technology</a> into their systems, allowing users to not only see and hear virtual worlds, but feel them as well, and a few companies are even letting people <a href="https://futurism.com/videos/this-mask-allows-you-to-smell-virtual-reality/" target="_blank">smell</a> and <a href="https://futurism.com/videos/now-you-can-taste-and-chew-in-virtual-reality/" target="_blank">taste virtual reality</a>.</p>
<p>Unlike Gernsback&#8217;s teleyeglasses, today&#8217;s VR systems are designed for far more than entertainment. They are being used to train <a href="https://futurism.com/armed-forces-using-combination-of-arvr-to-train-flight-medics/" target="_blank">medics</a>, <a href="https://futurism.com/videos/virtual-reality-helps-nasa-astronauts-train-for-emergencies/" target="_blank">astronauts</a>, and <a href="https://futurism.com/videos/hooyah-the-u-s-navy-recruits-sailors-with-virtual-reality/" target="_blank">sailors</a>, <a href="https://futurism.com/videos/thanks-to-virtual-reality-you-dont-have-to-be-afraid/" target="_blank">treat phobias</a>, and even <a href="https://futurism.com/videos/how-virtual-reality-can-help-diagnose-brain-injuries/" target="_blank">provide medical diagnoses</a>. From the tech itself to its many uses, the world of virtual reality has truly come a long way in a relatively short amount of time.</p>
<p><iframe width="500" height="281" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vYMzuvjBbN4?feature=oembed" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe></p>


Virtuality

Back in 1936, Hugo Gernback invented “teleyeglasses,” a pocket-sized, battery-operated portable TV with a separate screen for each eye, much like modern-day 3D VR glasses.
Though Gernback's invention was little more than a wearable television, today's VR tech is much more impressive, allowing wearers to immerse themselves in virtual worlds.

You’d Need to Travel Back in Time Over 50 Years to Get the World’s First VR Goggles

Sometimes the only difference between science fiction and reality is time.

<h2><b></b>What Does Gravity Look Like?</h2>
<p>Einstein’s theory of relativity described gravity as the distortion of space and time—which bend and stretch based on the masses of objects within them as well as the energy released from the phenomena. A few years later however, we gained awareness of the confusing world of <a href="https://futurism.com/understanding-the-physics-of-our-universe-what-is-quantum-mechanics/">quantum physics </a>as physicists discovered the existence of very small particles—which were later found to affect even the biggest, most powerful phenomena in the universe.</p>
<p>This led to the discovery of force-carrier particles, or <a href="http://www.particleadventure.org/fermibos.html">bosons</a>, behind three of the <a href="https://home.cern/about/physics/standard-model">fundamental forces</a> governing the universe: the electromagnetic field has photons, the strong nuclear force has gluons, and the weak force is carried by W and Z bosons. This leaves gravity out. Physicists hypothesize that, if the other three fundamental forces have a corresponding quantum theory, there must be a particle behind gravity too.</p>
<p>In an attempt to marry gravity with quantum theory, physicists came up with a hypothetical particle—the graviton. The graviton is said to be a massless, stable, <a href="https://www.mat.univie.ac.at/~neum/physfaq/topics/spin2.html">spin-2</a> particle that travels at the speed of light.</p>
<p>The graviton remains hypothetical, however, because at the moment, it’s <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0601043">impossible to detect</a>. Although gravity on a planetary scale is strong, on a small scales it can be very feeble. So much so that when a magnet attracts a paperclip, it pulls against the gravitational force of the entire planet, and still wins. This means that a single graviton—if it exists—is very, very weak. <a href="http://phys.org/news/2014-03-elusive-graviton.html">One study</a> even argues that it’s impossible to detect a single graviton unless we measure them in planet-sized magnitudes, using a universe-sized detector.</p>
<h2>String Theory and the Hunt for Gravitons</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://mafija.fmf.uni-lj.si/seminar/files/2011_2012/KaluzaKlein_theory.pdf">Kaluza-Klein theory</a> hypothesized that gravity may actually only seem weak from where we exist because it actually has the ability to go through more than three dimensions at once, and therefore spreads itself out thinly. This idea, after decades of being <a href="http://whystringtheory.com/history/the-ancients/">widely ignored</a> due to mathematical inconsistencies, when revisited and refined eventually led to what is now known as <a href="http://www.space.com/17594-string-theory.html">string theory</a>—currently the most promising contender in establishing a quantum theory of gravity. It is also our best hope in unifying quantum theory and general relativity, the biggest problem in physics today.</p>
<p><iframe width="500" height="375" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YtdE662eY_M?feature=oembed" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe></p>
<p>In string theory, mathematical calculations point to a universe with ten dimensions of space and one dimension of time, but the other spatial dimensions are far too small for us to see, even with microscopes. Several teams of physicists today are on the hunt for the graviton but, so far, all hopes of ensnaring the hypothetical particle have left us <a href="http://arstechnica.com/science/2016/08/cern-confirms-hints-of-hypothetical-particle-have-disappeared/">empty-handed</a>.</p>
<p>There are many things about quantum physics that we don&#8217;t understand and understanding particles and the laws that govern them can help us wield the powers that quantum phenomena hypothetically possess. Proving the existence of a particle that would help make sense of it all is a dream, and remains that as of now.</p>
<p>As it stands, we are far from definitively proving it exists. As Fermilab senior physicist Don Lincoln <a href="http://www.fnal.gov/pub/today/archive/archive_2012/today12-10-19_NutshellReadMore.html">wrote in a post</a>: “Gravitons are a theoretically reputable idea, but are not proven. So if you hear someone say that ‘gravitons are particles that generate the gravitational force,’ keep in mind that this is a reasonable statement, but by no means is it universally accepted. It will be a long time before gravitons are considered part of the established subatomic pantheon.”</p>


In an attempt to marry gravity with quantum theory, physicists came up with a hypothetical particle—the graviton, which is said to be a massless particle that travels at the speed of light.
According to physicists, it will be a long time before gravitons are considered part of the established subatomic pantheon.

/Author

Cecille De Jesus

Off World

ESA’s Plan for a “Moon Village” is Slowly Starting to Come Together

Artificial Intelligence

Machines That Learn Are Invading, and Utterly Transforming, Our Lives

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence: What It Is and How It Really Works

Sci-Fi Visions

Physicists Weigh In: Could We Ever Travel to a Parallel Universe?

Hard Science

Physicists Create Thin Diamond Wires That Could Make Future Tech Tiny

Earth & Energy

NASA’s Enormous Space-Based Laser Probes Earth’s Oceans

Off World

2017 Will Bring Us More Earth-Like Alien Worlds Than We Ever Dreamed

Future Society

Is a Universal Basic Income the Answer to Automation-Caused Unemployment?

Virtuality

You’d Need to Travel Back in Time Over 50 Years to Get the World’s First VR Goggles

Hard Science

The Edge of Physics: Do Gravitons Really Exist?

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